{"id":10713,"date":"2023-11-27T13:13:24","date_gmt":"2023-11-27T19:13:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10713"},"modified":"2024-10-04T10:17:45","modified_gmt":"2024-10-04T15:17:45","slug":"photoperiodism-and-life-history","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10713","title":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>PHOTOPERIODISM and REPRODUCTION TIMING<\/strong><\/p>"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: center;\">\u00a9 elfruler 2023<\/p>\n<h4><strong>PHOTOPERIOD, CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS, and CIRCANNUAL RHYTHMS<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Most viewers of Bald Eagle nest cams are aware of how important <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>, <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythms, and <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms are in the lives of birds. They are fundamental to how eagles\u2019 behaviors and physiological processes engage with the environment around them. This article provides information about what these systems are and how they work, and it explores some of the complexities of how they govern the processes of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10708\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Life History of Bald Eagles<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong> is the timespan of sunlight within a 24-hour day, usually called daytime or daylight. Its counterpart is the <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11041 classtoolTips11041'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=scotoperiod' target='_blank'>scotoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong>, the timespan of darkness, or nighttime. As everyone knows, the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> and <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11041 classtoolTips11041'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=scotoperiod' target='_blank'>scotoperiod<\/a><\/span> change from one day to the next following an <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11803 classtoolTips11803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=life-history' target='_blank'>annual cycle<\/a><\/span>, and they also vary by latitude (location on the earth north or south of the equator). Changes in <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> and the seasons of the year are caused by the Earth\u2019s <strong>tilt on its axis<\/strong> by about 23.5\u00b0and its <strong>revolution around the sun<\/strong> every 365.4 days. <strong>In the Northern Hemisphere<\/strong> during the <strong>winter months<\/strong> the North Pole tilts away from the sun, making the sun lower in the sky and the daytimes short. During <strong>summer<\/strong> the North Pole tilts toward the sun, which thus is higher in the sky and the daytimes are long.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>The <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is shortest on the <strong>Winter Solstice<\/strong> (~ December 21) (Lat. <em>sol<\/em> = sun + <em>status<\/em> = standing still) when the sun is lowest in the sky.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> slowly <strong>increases<\/strong> through the <strong>Vernal (Spring) Equinox<\/strong> (~ March 20) (Lat. <em>equus<\/em> = equal + <em>nox<\/em> = night) when the Earth\u2019s axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, and day and night are of roughly equal duration.<\/li>\n<li>The <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> continues to increase until it reaches its maximum at the <strong>Summer Solstice<\/strong> (~ June 20) when the sun is highest in the sky.<\/li>\n<li>It then slowly <strong>decreases<\/strong> through the <strong>Autumnal Equinox<\/strong> (~ September 22) when the axis again is not tilted in relation to the sun, and day and night are of roughly equal duration.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This progression is mirrored in the <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11803 classtoolTips11803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=life-history' target='_blank'>annual cycle<\/a><\/span><\/strong>\u2014or as ornithologists call it the <strong>Life History<\/strong>\u2014of most birds, including Bald Eagles. Each species has its own Life History, which is part of its genetic make-up, a <strong>long-term adaptation<\/strong> to ensure its survival. (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10708\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>See more discussion of Life History here<\/em><\/a><em>.<\/em>) The central <strong>Life-History stage<\/strong> for birds is<strong> Reproduction<\/strong>, which obviously is necessary for all species\u2019 survival. This is followed by <strong>Molt<\/strong>, the regular replacement of feathers, which also is essential. Many species then go on <strong>Migration<\/strong>, or, as I prefer to call it in reference to Bald Eagles, a post-breeding stage of <strong>Movement<\/strong>. Here is a <strong>schematic diagram of the Life-History stages of Bald Eagles<\/strong>, mapped onto 52 weeks of the year, showing the typical durations of each stage. Notice that Molt overlaps with Reproduction at the beginning and with Movement at the end <em>(click on the image for an enlarged<\/em> view):<a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10697\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-10697\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"10697\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10697\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-chart.jpg?fit=871%2C81&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"871,81\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"Life history chart\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-chart.jpg?fit=474%2C44&amp;ssl=1\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-10697 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-chart.jpg?resize=474%2C44&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"474\" height=\"44\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-chart.jpg?w=871&amp;ssl=1 871w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-chart.jpg?resize=300%2C28&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-chart.jpg?resize=768%2C71&amp;ssl=1 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 474px) 100vw, 474px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The Life-History stages for a species revolve around the time of the year when <strong>optimal food resources<\/strong> are readily available to feed <strong>growing chicks<\/strong> as well as the parents who nurture them. Scientists refer to food availability as the <strong>ultimate factor<\/strong> that is critical to the timing of a species\u2019 Reproduction. This, of course, is closely linked with the changes of seasons caused by the yearly movements of the Earth. Birds are able to \u201cread\u201d the seasons so that they move through the Life-History stages in such a way as to optimize their breeding success. They do this by means of <strong>internal rhythms<\/strong> (<span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span>), biological clocks throughout an organism\u2019s cells (which all organisms have) and that are correlated with the <strong>external rhythms<\/strong> (<span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span>) of the changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>Circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms<\/strong> ( <em>circa<\/em> = about and <em>annum<\/em> = year) are months-long cycles that govern a bird\u2019s Life History.<\/li>\n<li><strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>Circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythms<\/strong> (Lat. <em>circa<\/em> = about + <em>dies<\/em> = day) are daily oscillations between high and low physiological activity.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>Circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms<\/strong> and <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythms<\/strong> are built into a bird\u2019s DNA, like its Life History. The rhythms are <strong>maintained without the stimulation of conditions from the environment<\/strong>. Scientists have learned this by placing birds in a laboratory, maintaining constant light to simulate an unchanging <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>, and measuring the pattern of rhythms of their physiological systems. These <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> rhythms are referred to as <strong>free-running<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Free-running <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms vary among bird species from 9 to 13 months<\/strong>. Even birds in tropical regions, where changes of season are minimal or non-existent, display an <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11803 classtoolTips11803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=life-history' target='_blank'>annual cycle<\/a><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Free-running <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythm among birds recurs about every 23-25 hours<\/strong>, depending on the species.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>But wild birds do not live in the artificial environment of a laboratory, and their <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> rhythms are synchronized with and controlled by <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> systems of the natural world, the daily and annual cycles of the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>. This synchronization is referred to as <strong>entrainment.<\/strong> The regular and entirely predictable changes in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> over the year <strong>entrain the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms<\/strong> to the <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> rhythm of the seasons<\/strong>, so a species\u2019 Life History is repeated within the 365-day timeframe of the Earth\u2019s revolution around the sun. And the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> biological clock is <strong>entrained<\/strong> to the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> changes in the <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong> over the 24 hours of the Earth\u2019s rotation on its axis. \u00a0(<em>Scientists sometimes refer to the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> as a <strong>Zeitgeber<\/strong><\/em> (Ger. <em>Zeit = <\/em>time +<em> Geber <\/em>= giver<em>) because of its role in entraining<\/em><em> an organism\u2019s <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythms to the Earth\u2019s <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> rhythms. This compound German word was invented in the 20<sup>th<\/sup> century by J\u00fcrgen Aschoff (1951), who was a chronobiologist, a scientist who studies biological rhythms<\/em>.)<\/p>\n<h4><strong>HOW DOES PHOTOPERIODISM WORK IN BIRDS?<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Photoperiodism<\/strong> refers to <strong>how an organism responds to the changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong>. The mechanism begins in the brain. The <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11912 classtoolTips11912'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pineal-gland' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11912 classtoolTips11912'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pineal-gland' target='_blank'>Pineal<\/a><\/span> Gland<\/a><\/span><\/strong>, the <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11900 classtoolTips11900'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=hypothalamus' target='_blank'>Hypothalamus<\/a><\/span><\/strong>, and in some species the <strong>Retinas<\/strong> of the eyes serve as a <strong>bridge between the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> world and the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> systems<\/strong> of the body. In addition to performing their other functions within the nervous system, these organs are the body\u2019s principal <strong>internal oscillators<\/strong> or <strong>pacemakers<\/strong>, interacting with each other to <strong>maintain a body\u2019s <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythm<\/strong>. The pacemakers also receive <strong>information from the external environment<\/strong> by means of photosensitive cells, or <strong>photoreceptors<\/strong>. These cells are active during the daylight hours and perceive the presence of sunlight and its intensity and <strong>measure the daily <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong>. They also <strong>retain a memory<\/strong> of sunlight changes <strong>over the course of the day<\/strong>, and thus the brain can deduce the approximate <strong>time of day<\/strong>\u2014early morning, mid-afternoon, etc. (Dawson, King <em>et al<\/em>. 2001)<\/p>\n<p>As they measure the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>, the <strong>photoreceptors stimulate the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11912 classtoolTips11912'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pineal-gland' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11912 classtoolTips11912'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pineal-gland' target='_blank'>Pineal<\/a><\/span> Gland<\/a><\/span><\/strong> to produce the hormone <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10803 classtoolTips10803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=melatonin' target='_blank'>Melatonin<\/a><\/span><\/strong> (<strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10803 classtoolTips10803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=melatonin' target='_blank'>MEL<\/a><\/span><\/strong>). <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10803 classtoolTips10803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=melatonin' target='_blank'>MEL<\/a><\/span> is <strong>inhibited by light<\/strong>, so it is secreted only during the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11041 classtoolTips11041'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=scotoperiod' target='_blank'>scotoperiod<\/a><\/span>, <strong>increasing as daylight diminishes<\/strong> near sunset and <strong>decreasing as the sun rises<\/strong>. <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10803 classtoolTips10803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=melatonin' target='_blank'>MEL<\/a><\/span>\u2019s daily rhythmic secretion is the means by which the <strong>body\u2019s <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> daily biological rhythms are synced\u2014or entrained\u2014to the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> rhythms of the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong>. <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10803 classtoolTips10803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=melatonin' target='_blank'>MEL<\/a><\/span> also induces physiological changes in the body. It signals the <strong>brain to decrease its activity<\/strong> during the dark hours, and its circulation through the bloodstream causes <strong>lower body temperature<\/strong> and <strong>decreased metabolism<\/strong>. (<em>See more about <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10803 classtoolTips10803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=melatonin' target='_blank'>Melatonin<\/a><\/span>, the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11912 classtoolTips11912'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pineal-gland' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11912 classtoolTips11912'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pineal-gland' target='_blank'>Pineal<\/a><\/span> Gland<\/a><\/span>, and the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11900 classtoolTips11900'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=hypothalamus' target='_blank'>Hypothalamus<\/a><\/span> in the article on the<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10701\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em> <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10961 classtoolTips10961'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endocrine' target='_blank'>Endocrine<\/a><\/span> System and Hormones<\/em><\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Memory of the daily <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> <strong>persists throughout the year<\/strong>. The photoreceptors in the brain measure and retain memories of <strong>changes in daylight from one day to the next<\/strong>. Thus they can perceive <strong>whether the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is comparatively long or short<\/strong>, whether it is <strong>increasing or decreasing<\/strong>, and <strong>whether the change is gradual or rapid<\/strong>. The brain also responds to the intensity of sunlight\u2014whether the sun is high overhead or hanging low in the sky (and distorted by atmospheric refraction), as dictated by the time of day and the season. The photoreceptors\u2019 perception of the changes in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> from one day to the next enables a bird to <strong>perceive whether it is spring or fall, summer or winter<\/strong>, in other words to know where they are in their annual <a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10708\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Life History<\/a> and to anticipate what is likely to happen in their environment in coming weeks.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong> is what researchers call a <strong>proximate factor<\/strong>, a <strong>current or impending situation<\/strong> that triggers behaviorial or physiological responses. The <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is the only proximate factor that is <strong>unfailingly consistent<\/strong> from year to year and thus can serve as a signal to the body to prepare for transition to a new Life-History stage. For most birds in the Temperate zone, including all Bald Eagles, the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is the <strong>initial predictive cue<\/strong> that is reliable weeks in advance as a signal to the body to begin the transition from one Life-History stage to the next. (Less predictable proximate factors, such as temperature, food supplies, weather conditions, bonding with a mate, territorial disputes, and human disturbance are discussed below).<\/p>\n<p><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>Photoperiod<\/a><\/span> affects a bird\u2019s activities and biology throughout its <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11803 classtoolTips11803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=life-history' target='_blank'>annual cycle<\/a><\/span>, but particularly at two pivotal times for a breeding bird: 1) at the <strong>end of the Reproduction stage<\/strong> when the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11911 classtoolTips11911'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=testes' target='_blank'>Testes<\/a><\/span>, <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11910 classtoolTips11910'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=ovary' target='_blank'>Ovary<\/a><\/span>, and Oviduct shrink (<strong>gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10934 classtoolTips10934'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=regression' target='_blank'>regression<\/a><\/span><\/strong>), and 2) at the <strong>start of the next Reproduction stage<\/strong> when the Gonads redevelop (<strong>gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudescence<\/a><\/span><\/strong>). Gonadal maturity obviously is necessary for the production of <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11944 classtoolTips11944'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=spermatozoan' target='_blank'>sperm<\/a><\/span> and eggs, while gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10934 classtoolTips10934'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=regression' target='_blank'>regression<\/a><\/span> precludes the possibility of reproduction during an unfavorable season of the year, and it frees up metabolic resources for <strong>Molt<\/strong> and <strong>Movement<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>The body\u2019s responses to the changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> follow a progression of three states for breeding birds (see more detail <a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10710\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">article on Reproduction and Hormones<\/a>), which largely coincide with the Life History stages:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\"><strong>Photosensitivity<\/strong>. In this state the bird becomes <strong>sensitive to changes in daylight<\/strong> after a long period of insensitivity and gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10934 classtoolTips10934'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=regression' target='_blank'>regression<\/a><\/span>, and the body slowly transitions into the season of <strong>Preparation<\/strong> for Reproduction. A protein (<em>opsin<\/em>) in the brain\u2019s photoreceptor cells undergoes a chemical reaction that signals the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11900 classtoolTips11900'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=hypothalamus' target='_blank'>Hypothalamus<\/a><\/span> to produce a hormone (<span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10805 classtoolTips10805'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=gonadotropin-releasing-hormone' target='_blank'>GnRH<\/a><\/span>, or <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10805 classtoolTips10805'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=gonadotropin-releasing-hormone' target='_blank'>Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone<\/a><\/span>) which initiates a series of hormonal secretions downstream, causing the Gonads begin to regrow. The <strong>gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudescence<\/a><\/span><\/strong> process is <strong>slow<\/strong>, but the hormonal changes gradually affect the birds\u2019 <strong>behavior<\/strong>. The <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11911 classtoolTips11911'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=testes' target='_blank'>Testes<\/a><\/span> begin to produce <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11944 classtoolTips11944'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=spermatozoan' target='_blank'>sperm<\/a><\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12395 classtoolTips12395'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=yolk' target='_blank'>yolk<\/a><\/span> material is slowly produced in the liver<\/strong> for deposition in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11910 classtoolTips11910'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=ovary' target='_blank'>Ovary<\/a><\/span>. The pair becomes <strong>active in their breeding territory<\/strong>, they start to build or refurbish <strong>nests<\/strong>, and they engage in <strong>bonding behaviors<\/strong>, including copulation.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\"><strong>Photostimulation<\/strong>. As the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> continues to change, the brain\u2019s photoreceptors stimulate <strong>significantly increased secretions from the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11900 classtoolTips11900'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=hypothalamus' target='_blank'>Hypothalamus<\/a><\/span> and the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11901 classtoolTips11901'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pituitary-gland' target='_blank'>Pituitary Gland<\/a><\/span><\/strong> which activate <strong>sex hormones<\/strong> (<span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10849 classtoolTips10849'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=testosterone' target='_blank'>Testosterone<\/a><\/span>, Estrogens, and <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10853 classtoolTips10853'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=progesterone' target='_blank'>Progesterone<\/a><\/span>) in the Gonads. The <strong>Gonads grow rapidly<\/strong> and the bird enters the <strong>Maturity<\/strong> phase. Nests are finalized, copulation becomes more frequent, <strong><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11066 classtoolTips11066'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=ovulation' target='_blank'>ovulation<\/a><\/span> and fertilization<\/strong> occur, and <strong>eggs are laid<\/strong> (<span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'>oviposition<\/a><\/span>). After <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'>oviposition<\/a><\/span>, different hormones induce a <strong>transition to a less sexual and more parental phase<\/strong> as adults care for growing nestlings.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\"><strong>Photorefractoriness<\/strong>. The birds transition into a state of <strong>insensitivity<\/strong> to daylight as it settles into a long period of slow daily changes. With little <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> stimulation and a <strong>decline of reproductive hormones<\/strong>, <strong>gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10934 classtoolTips10934'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=regression' target='_blank'>regression<\/a><\/span><\/strong> begins and <strong>sexual activity between adults recedes<\/strong> as the<strong> Termination<\/strong> phase of Reproduction settles in. Chicks grow and ultimately leave their nests. Photorefractoriness continues through the beginning of <strong>Molt<\/strong> and the <strong>Movement<\/strong> stage of Life History when adults begin migration or other movements outside the immediate nest area. Reproduction will not begin again until Molt is complete and photorefractoriness is dissipated at the beginning of a new Reproduction season.<\/p>\n<p>This schematic diagram illustrates how these photoperiodic states correspond with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10708\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11803 classtoolTips11803'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=life-history' target='_blank'>annual cycle<\/a><\/span> of a Bald Eagles\u2019 Life-History stages<\/a> (<em>c<\/em><em>lick on the image for an enlarged<\/em> view):<a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10714\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-10714\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"10714\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10714\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?fit=1414%2C469&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"1414,469\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"Life history Photoperiod chart\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?fit=474%2C157&amp;ssl=1\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-10714 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?resize=474%2C157&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"474\" height=\"157\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?w=1414&amp;ssl=1 1414w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?resize=300%2C100&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?resize=1024%2C340&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?resize=768%2C255&amp;ssl=1 768w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Life-history-Photoperiod-chart.jpg?w=948&amp;ssl=1 948w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 474px) 100vw, 474px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Reproduction occupies well over half of the year for <strong>Bald Eagles<\/strong>, and the <strong>Preparation phase begins many weeks before they lay eggs<\/strong>. Scientists theorize that the critical predictive cue to the brain is when the daily changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> reaches <strong>a threshold of a certain length<\/strong>, a <strong>critical <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong>. This triggers the <strong>dissipation of photorefractoriness<\/strong> and brings the Reproductive system to a state of <strong>photosensitivity<\/strong>, when the long slow process of gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudescence<\/a><\/span> begins. <strong>Another critical <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong> at the <strong>end of Reproduction<\/strong> initiates the <strong>beginning of photorefractoriness<\/strong> and gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10934 classtoolTips10934'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=regression' target='_blank'>regression<\/a><\/span>. What that \u201cthreshold of a certain length\u201d is that defines a \u201ccritical <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>\u201d cannot be pinpointed to a specific day, but it occurs within<strong> a brief window of time<\/strong> that maximizes a bird\u2019s likelihood of reproductive success in the weeks that follow. This timeframe <strong>differs among species, populations, latitude, and climate<\/strong>, and it can shift for an individual bird from year to year.<\/p>\n<h4><strong>ADAPTATION, VARIABILITY, and PLASTICITY<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Bald Eagles have a relatively simple Life History (in contrast, for instance, to birds who undergo more than one Molt each year), which enables them to be <strong>flexible breeders<\/strong> in the timing of Reproduction, Molt, and Movement, within the boundaries of the genetically established timeframe. (Wingfield 2005) They inhabit most of North America, and the Life History schedules of <strong>different populations<\/strong> in this enormous area vary, a type of environmental <strong>plasticity<\/strong>. In general the Bald Eagle breeding season occurs <strong>progressively later in the year <\/strong><strong>from south to north<\/strong>. But geographical latitude is not the only variable. Geophysical features like coasts, mountains, and deserts can affect climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, rainfall) that shape the timing of breeding. (Dawson 2008) The schedule may depend on habitat, such as whether a pair is nesting in an urban or a rural area. Even within the same region and climate, Bald Eagles\u2019 <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12044 classtoolTips12044'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=egg' target='_blank'>egg<\/a><\/span>-laying<\/a><\/span> schedules can differ by a month or more, probably dictated by individual genetic make-up, lineage and experiences, and Life History. And although most individuals produce eggs each year within the same timeframe of 1-3 weeks, they may adjust their schedules if necessary due to unforeseen and disruptive events.<\/p>\n<p>Bald Eagles inhabit the large <strong>Temperate Climate Zone<\/strong> of North America, from the Sub-Tropics (north of the <strong>Tropic of Cancer<\/strong> at ~ 23.44\u00b0 N) to the Sub-Arctic (south of the <strong>Arctic Circle<\/strong> at ~ 66.5\u00b0 N). This map marks the <strong>Tropic of Cancer<\/strong> and the <strong>Arctic Circle<\/strong> with thick yellow lines, and I have added <strong>red dots<\/strong> showing the <strong>locations of Bald Eagle nests recently live-streamed on the internet<\/strong> (c<em>lick on the image for an enlarged<\/em> <em>view<\/em>).<a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10699\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-10699\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"10699\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10699\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/N-Am-cams-Google-Earth-Pro.jpg?fit=1683%2C1291&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"1683,1291\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"N-Am-cams-Google-Earth-Pro\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/N-Am-cams-Google-Earth-Pro.jpg?fit=474%2C363&amp;ssl=1\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-10699 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/N-Am-cams-Google-Earth-Pro.jpg?resize=474%2C447&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"474\" height=\"447\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Based on the timing of breeding activities of Bald Eagles, I have separated the Temperate zone into several regions by latitude:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sub-arctic<\/strong>: just below the Arctic Circle, from about<strong> 60\u00b0 &#8211; 50\u00b0 N<\/strong>, including Alaska and Yukon Territories<\/li>\n<li><strong>Northern tier<\/strong>: the <strong>Northern tier<\/strong> between about <strong>50\u00b0 &#8211; 43\u00b0 N<\/strong>, including Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia<\/li>\n<li><strong>Middle tier<\/strong>: between about <strong>43\u00b0 &#8211; 35\u00b0 N<\/strong>, including Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Colorado, Arizona, and California<\/li>\n<li><strong>Sub-tropics<\/strong>: from about <strong>35\u00b0 &#8211; 23.4\u00b0 N<\/strong>, including Florida, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The <strong>northernmost<\/strong> nests on cam are those in Alaska at <strong>about 60\u00b0 N<\/strong>, some <strong>448 miles south of the Arctic Circle<\/strong>. The <strong>southernmost<\/strong> nest is in south Florida at <strong>about 25\u00b0 N<\/strong>, a few degrees north of the Tropic of Cancer and about<strong> 1725 miles north of the Equator<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>different populations of breeding Bald Eagles<\/strong> that these regions delineate remain fairly discrete since eagles tend to return to the general area of their natal nest to establish their own territory. All Bald Eagles have the same Life Histories, but the timing and the progression of the stages are <strong>genetically adapted to the climatic conditions of each region, commensurate with timely access to food<\/strong>. \u00a0Populations at <strong>lower latitudes<\/strong> generally begin the Reproduction stage <strong>earlier in the year<\/strong>, while those at <strong>higher latitudes begin later<\/strong>, a common pattern for wildlife.<\/p>\n<p>The differences among the populations are obvious in the following schematic diagram, which shows the approximate timeframes of the <strong>phases and sub-phases of the Reproduction Life-History stage<\/strong> for Bald Eagles from north to south as they have been <strong>observed on nest cameras<\/strong>, correlated with changes in <a href=\"https:\/\/aa.usno.navy.mil\/data\/index\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> through the year<\/a>. (<em>Each Reproduction phase<\/em>\u2014<em>Preparation, Maturity: Sexual, Maturity: Parental, and Termination<\/em>\u2014<em>shows the observed <strong>time range <\/strong>among<strong> all the nests in each region<\/strong>, not the schedule of an individual nest or bird. Click on the image for an enlarged view.<\/em>)<a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10698\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-10698\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" decoding=\"async\" data-attachment-id=\"10698\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?attachment_id=10698\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?fit=1250%2C560&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"1250,560\" data-comments-opened=\"0\" data-image-title=\"Reprod Photoper Geog\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?fit=474%2C212&amp;ssl=1\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-10698 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?resize=474%2C212&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"474\" height=\"212\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?w=1250&amp;ssl=1 1250w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?resize=300%2C134&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?resize=1024%2C459&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?resize=768%2C344&amp;ssl=1 768w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.elfruler.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/11\/Reprod-Photoper-Geog.jpg?w=948&amp;ssl=1 948w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 474px) 100vw, 474px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>This diagram illustrates a <strong>striking contrast<\/strong> in the <strong>start of the Reproduction season<\/strong>, the <strong>Preparation phase<\/strong> of courtship and nest-building (marked by <strong><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">blue shading<\/span><\/strong> in the diagram) when <strong>photorefractoriness has dissipated<\/strong> and <strong>gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudescence<\/a><\/span><\/strong> has commenced. (While we cannot directly see the Gonads of Bald Eagles living in the wild and whether they are growing or shrinking, the eagles\u2019 behaviors reflect the physiological changes.) The difference is whether the eagles start <strong>after the Summer Solstice or after the Winter Solstice<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Eagles in the<strong> three lower regions<\/strong> (North Temperate, Middle Temperate, and Sub-tropical) begin <strong>after the Summer Solstice<\/strong>, from late summer to early fall as daylight is decreasing. Note that eagles in the <strong>southernmost Sub-tropics begin only a month or so before<\/strong> the eagles in the North and Middle Temperate regions. This timing is typical of most birds in the Temperate Zone.<\/li>\n<li>In the <strong>extreme northern Sub-arctic region<\/strong>, early breeding behaviors are not evident until <strong>several weeks later<\/strong>, when daylight begins lengthening <strong>after the Winter Solstice<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A<strong> less obvious difference<\/strong> between populations is perhaps <strong>more significant<\/strong>: the <strong>timing of <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12044 classtoolTips12044'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=egg' target='_blank'>egg<\/a><\/span>-laying<\/a><\/span><\/strong>, during the <strong>Sexual sub-phase of the Maturity stage<\/strong> (marked by <strong><span style=\"color: #ff99cc;\">pink shading<\/span><\/strong>). The distinction is whether eggs come while <strong>the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is increasing <\/strong>(marked by <strong>\u2197\u2197<\/strong> to <strong>\u2197\u2197\u2197<\/strong> arrows in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>Photoperiod<\/a><\/span> row at the top of the diagram), <strong>decreasing<\/strong> (marked by 2 arrows <strong>\u2198\u2198<\/strong> or 3 arrows <strong>\u2197\u2197<\/strong>), or <strong>barely changing at all<\/strong> (marked by a single <strong>\u2197<\/strong> arrow).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Eagles in the <strong>northern latitudes<\/strong> (Sub-arctic, North Temperate, and Middle Temperate) lay eggs in late winter and spring when <strong>daylight is lengthening<\/strong> more and more <strong>rapidly<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Eagles in the <strong>Sub-tropics<\/strong> lay eggs in late fall or early winter as<strong> daylight is short or only slowly lengthening<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The early schedule of <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12044 classtoolTips12044'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=egg' target='_blank'>egg<\/a><\/span>-laying<\/a><\/span> for <strong>southern eagles<\/strong> has made <strong>some wonder whether photoperiodism plays any role at all<\/strong> in timing their Life History stages. Among scientists there is <strong>no real debate<\/strong> about this. While daily <strong>changes in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> in the south are much smaller<\/strong> than further north, studies have shown that birds throughout the Temperate zone and down into the Tropics are <strong>highly sensitive to small changes<\/strong> in <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>. (Dawson 2007) Like birds further north, birds who breed in the far south have <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> and <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms, they experience annual rhythms of gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudescence<\/a><\/span> and <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10934 classtoolTips10934'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=regression' target='_blank'>regression<\/a><\/span> as well as Molt, their bodily systems respond to the changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>, and their <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> biological clocks are entrained to it. (Gwinner &amp; Scheuerlein 1999) In fact, some birds in the Tropics (<strong>well south of the Bald Eagles\u2019 range<\/strong>) can perceive and respond to <strong>a difference as small as 17 minutes<\/strong> between the shortest and the longest <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> of the year (Hau <em>et al<\/em>. 1998)\u2014much shorter than the approximately <strong>3.3 hours<\/strong> annual difference for eagles at the southern tip of Florida.<\/p>\n<p>The differences in breeding schedules at different latitudes can be traced to <strong>adaptive (genetic) differences<\/strong> in the ways the neuroendocrine systems perceive and respond to the changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>. (MacDougall-Shackleton &amp; Hahn 2007; Hahn &amp; MacDougall-Shackleton 2008) Some studies suggest that the reproductive systems of populations at lower latitudes <strong>may not become completely inactive<\/strong> after the regular breeding season but remain minimally functional and can be reactivated quickly\u2014that their Gonads do not regress completely, but if conditions are favorable they can <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudesce<\/a><\/span> rapidly. (Immelmann 1972; Dawson <em>et al<\/em>. 2001; Dawson 2008)<\/p>\n<p>Scientists have applied the term <strong>long-day breeders<\/strong> to species or populations who <strong>lay eggs during the increasingly longer photoperiods<\/strong> in spring and summer, which <strong>includes most birds<\/strong>. Experiments have shown that for these birds the initial predictive cue, the critical <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> that induces the onset of <strong>photosensitivity<\/strong>, occurs when daylight is<strong> decreasing after an extended period of long days<\/strong>\u2014i.e. around the Autumnal Equinox. This is the pattern that most Bald Eagles follow. A few species of birds fall into the category of <strong>short-day breeders<\/strong>, those who lay eggs <strong>as daylight is decreasing or short<\/strong> in the fall or winter. For them, including many southern Bald Eagles, the onset of <strong>photosensitivity <\/strong>can occur in the summer <strong>while daylight is still long<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Researchers have found that these timing differences between long-day breeders and short-day breeders may be due to how their brains function. (Gwinner &amp; Scheuerlin 1999; Sharp and Blache 2003; Sharp 2005)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li>In <strong>long-day breeders<\/strong> the minimal changes to <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> of the long days of summer <strong>render the neurons in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11900 classtoolTips11900'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=hypothalamus' target='_blank'>Hypothalamus<\/a><\/span> insensitive<\/strong> to daylight. It takes the <strong>shift to larger changes in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> in autumn<\/strong> to \u201cwake up\u201d those neurons so they can begin responding to the changes and send signals to hormones in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11901 classtoolTips11901'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=pituitary-gland' target='_blank'>Pituitary Gland<\/a><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>In <strong>short-day breeders<\/strong> the neurons in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11900 classtoolTips11900'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=hypothalamus' target='_blank'>Hypothalamus<\/a><\/span> are <strong>more active throughout the year<\/strong> and <strong>can function even with minimal input from the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/strong>. This means that their reproductive systems may be <strong>more readily controlled by their <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10800 classtoolTips10800'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=endogenous' target='_blank'>endogenous<\/a><\/span> <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>circannual<\/a><\/span> systems<\/strong> and the neurons can begin to send signals downstream earlier.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>(<em>This may help explain events in 2019-2020 at the Southwest Florida eagles\u2019 nest (Fort Myers, FL) where several weeks after losing their 37-day old chick the eagles produced a very late second <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11805 classtoolTips11805'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=clutch' target='_blank'>clutch<\/a><\/span> and raised those eaglets to <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_7689 classtoolTips7689'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=fledge' target='_blank'>fledge<\/a><\/span>. A successful second <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11804 classtoolTips11804'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=brood' target='_blank'>brood<\/a><\/span> after loss of eaglets (as opposed to eggs) from a first <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11804 classtoolTips11804'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=brood' target='_blank'>brood<\/a><\/span> is a <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=3218\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>rare occurrence among Bald Eagles<\/em><\/a><em>, and it may occur only in climates where their reproductive systems are adapted to make it possible.<\/em>)<\/p>\n<h4><strong>NON-PHOTOPERIODIC PROXIMATE FACTORS IN REPRODUCTION<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>Photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is the only proximate factor that is consistent from day to day and year to year and thus the only one that a bird\u2019s body can rely on as an initial predictive cue. But <strong>other proximate factors<\/strong>, which are often unpredictable or irregular, also can affect the timing of Reproduction (Wingfield <em>et al<\/em>. 2007). Such <strong>supplementary information<\/strong> can help fine-tune the timing of Reproduction in short-term situations. Researchers have found that the effect of some proximate <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> cues on reproductive activities may be more significant in southern birds than in northern birds. (Dawson 2008; Hahn et al. 2009; Silverin et al 2008; Sturkie\u2019s 6<sup>th<\/sup>: 504) Non-photoperiodic proximate factors include <strong>environmental cues<\/strong> and <strong>social cues<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Environmental cues<\/strong> tend to be variable and include climate, weather conditions, and food availability. Unpredictable environmental situations (storms, extreme heat or cold) can be disruptive and can delay or prevent reproductive activities, or even result in loss of a <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11805 classtoolTips11805'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=clutch' target='_blank'>clutch<\/a><\/span>, <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11804 classtoolTips11804'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=brood' target='_blank'>brood<\/a><\/span>, or nest. <strong>Male breeders may be more affected by unfavorable environmental cues than females<\/strong>, since male <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11944 classtoolTips11944'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=spermatozoan' target='_blank'>sperm<\/a><\/span> production may suffer if such conditions are persistent, even before females are ready to ovulate.<\/p>\n<p>A particular region generally has a predictable <strong>temperature<\/strong> range, and it is tempting to wonder whether the significant differences in ambient <strong>temperatures<\/strong> across the latitudes of the Temperate Zone <strong>play a role <\/strong>in the timing of Reproduction. The theory is that the start of breeding is triggered to some degree by the onset of warm weather\u2014earlier in the south and later in the north. But scientists have found <strong>little evidence that temperature plays a role as a predictive factor<\/strong>. (Cassone &amp; Kumar 2015) Temperatures from day to day or week to week can make unexpected swings, and there is no way for a wild animal to foresee such swings far enough in advance to begin the long Reproductive process. Once the reproductive process has begun, though, a temporary stretch of unusually low temperatures can slow it down and abnormally high temperatures may speed it up.<\/p>\n<p>Some regions have fairly regular seasons of <strong>rainfall<\/strong>, but as with temperature ranges these do not appear to have a predictive impact on the timing of breeding. Unusually low or high rainfall as well as extreme temperature swings can adversely affect the <strong>availability of food<\/strong>. Inadequate food in a particular year can stop a breeding season before it starts, and it can induce potential parents to delay or scuttle a breeding attempt, tax the health of breeding adults, or impair the growth and development of nestlings.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>clouds<\/strong> that accompany rainfall may reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/firstrays.com\/natural-sunlight-intensity\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>sunlight intensity<\/strong><\/a>, the amount of radiation\u2014i.e., energy in the form of light and heat\u2014that reaches the earth by scattering its radiation. Sunlight, of course, is coordinated with the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> throughout the year, but its intensity is dependent on the time of year and time of day. At any given latitude, sunlight intensity is <strong>greatest and longest at the Summer Solstice<\/strong>, when it is at its maximum elevation of the year. It is<strong> greatest in the middle of the day<\/strong> when the sun is at its highest elevation. It is <strong>lowest in early morning and evening<\/strong> both because its lower angle in the sky increases the distance the radiation must travel to reach the earth\u2019s surface, and because at those times its effect is distorted by atmospheric refraction. So if clouds are present at mid-day but build up late in the afternoon, they have less effect on the amount of sunlight intensity reaching the Earth.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Prolonged cloud cover<\/strong> over several days can lower the sun\u2019s intensity, reducing the signals that a bird receives from the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>. Such extended periods can happen almost anywhere, and it may affect birds in the short term, as for instance inducing females to delay <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11066 classtoolTips11066'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=ovulation' target='_blank'>ovulation<\/a><\/span> or <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'>oviposition<\/a><\/span>. (Dawson 2008) Some areas may experience a <strong>regular annual rainy season<\/strong>, suggesting the possibility that it affects the timing of Reproduction. For example, parts of Florida commonly experience a rainy season from June through September. <a href=\"https:\/\/weatherspark.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Daily details of weather features for a given location can be explored here<\/a>.) Could this be a reliable trigger for gonadal <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10933 classtoolTips10933'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=recrudescence' target='_blank'>recrudescence<\/a><\/span> and the beginning of Reproduction activities? It is a question impossible to answer with what we know. But while it may be one factor in the timing of Reproduction, a general annual pattern of rain and cloud cover in a particular region can be variable from year to year, day to day, and hour to hour, and the effect on light intensity depends on the time of day that clouds are present. Such variabilities might make cloud cover <strong>unlikely to be as reliable a predictive factor every year<\/strong> as the changing <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>, although it could have played a role in long-term adaptation to a local climate. (Gwinner 2003; Sturkies 5<sup>th<\/sup>, 811; Ronneberg 2010)<\/p>\n<p>Another pertinent point is that while Florida\u2019s summer rains may have played some role in the adaptation of the Life History of the population of Bald Eagles there, a similar situation at comparable latitudes, such as Louisiana, South Carolina, Texas, and Georgia, is not evident. Eagles there have the same <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11500 classtoolTips11500'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=oviposition' target='_blank'><span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12044 classtoolTips12044'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=egg' target='_blank'>egg<\/a><\/span>-laying<\/a><\/span> schedule as Florida but not the same cloud cover pattern, so in those regions <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span> is the only predictive cue to govern the Reproduction schedule.<\/p>\n<p>Prolonged or persistent <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_10801 classtoolTips10801'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=exogenous' target='_blank'>exogenous<\/a><\/span> cues, such as climate change, can impact a species or a population over the long term by inducing permanent adaptations that enhance the likelihood of success, and thus become <strong>ultimate factors<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>Social cues<\/strong> include <strong>presence<\/strong> (or <strong>absence<\/strong>) of a <strong>suitable mate<\/strong>, appropriate <strong>interactions between male and female<\/strong>, <strong>competition<\/strong> for a mate or a territory, <strong>nest site availability<\/strong>, and <strong>human disturbance<\/strong>. Pair-bonding and nest-building stimulate hormonal secretions and bring a male and a female into hormonal and behavioral sync, which is crucial to successful breeding (see discussion in the article on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10710\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Reproduction and Hormones<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Disruptions by intruders or humans are unpredictable and can delay or prevent reproductive activity. <strong>Female breeders generally are more affected by social cues<\/strong> such as effective (or inept) courtship behavior by a male. Female Bald Eagles are especially dependent on social cues in the final stages of the Maturity phase of <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12044 classtoolTips12044'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=egg' target='_blank'>egg<\/a><\/span> production, to induce <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_12395 classtoolTips12395'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=yolk' target='_blank'>yolk<\/a><\/span> deposition in the <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11910 classtoolTips11910'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=ovary' target='_blank'>Ovary<\/a><\/span> as well as <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11066 classtoolTips11066'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=ovulation' target='_blank'>ovulation<\/a><\/span>. (Ball &amp; Ketterson 2008) But both females and males are affected by other social factors such as intruders, loss of a nest, or human activities.<\/p>\n<p><em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10648\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">References: <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>Photoperiod<\/a><\/span><\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p><em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10642\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">References: Life History<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u00a9 elfruler 2023 PHOTOPERIOD, CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS, and CIRCANNUAL RHYTHMS Most viewers of Bald Eagle nest cams are aware of how important <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11040 classtoolTips11040'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=photoperiod' target='_blank'>photoperiod<\/a><\/span>, <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11043 classtoolTips11043'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circadian' target='_blank'>circadian<\/a><\/span> rhythms, and <span class='tooltipsall tooltip_post_id_11042 classtoolTips11042'><a href='https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?tooltips=circannual' target='_blank'>circannual<\/a><\/span> rhythms are in the lives of birds. They are fundamental to how eagles\u2019 behaviors and physiological processes engage with the environment around them. This article provides information about what &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/?page_id=10713\" class=\"more-link\">Continue reading <span class=\"screen-reader-text\"><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>PHOTOPERIODISM and REPRODUCTION TIMING<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><\/span> <span class=\"meta-nav\">&rarr;<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"nf_dc_page":"","footnotes":""},"tags":[148,121,9,23,10,98,125,129,134,135,147,15,7,22,13,24,28,128,118,138,127,17,137,144,122,123,124,8,117,130,47,120,149,140,131,14,25,126,133,142,141,143,145,146,119,136,150,46,21,139],"class_list":["post-10713","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","tag-adaptation","tag-annual-cycle","tag-bald-eagle","tag-bird","tag-breeding","tag-brood","tag-brood-patch","tag-broodiness","tag-circadian","tag-circannual","tag-climate","tag-clutch","tag-eagle","tag-eaglet","tag-egg","tag-egg-laying","tag-eggshell","tag-embryo","tag-endocrine","tag-entrainment","tag-fertilization","tag-fledge","tag-free-running","tag-genetics","tag-gland","tag-gonadal-recrudescence","tag-gonadal-regression","tag-hatch","tag-hormone","tag-incubation","tag-juvenile","tag-life-history","tag-long-day-breeder","tag-melatonin","tag-molt","tag-nest","tag-oviposition","tag-ovulation","tag-photoperiod","tag-photorefractory","tag-photosensitive","tag-photostimulated","tag-plasticity","tag-population","tag-reproduction","tag-scotoperiod","tag-short-day-breeder","tag-subadult","tag-timing","tag-zeitgeber"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/P6nduD-2MN","jetpack-related-posts":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/10713","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=10713"}],"version-history":[{"count":15,"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/10713\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":11050,"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/10713\/revisions\/11050"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=10713"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.elfruler.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=10713"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}